Social And Cultural Impacts On The Environment Tourism Essay

Social And Cultural Impacts On The Environment Tourism EssayThe Tourism Industry is regarded as star of the intimately important and fastest growing industry around the world. Travel has been of great interest to people since the beginning of the civilization. Recently, it has been noted that there has been an increment in tourists arrivals, especially in slight island states. According to UNWTO, touristry pass on continue to grow in 2011. Tourism sector has suffered from the globular financial crisis in 2008 and 2009, simply thanks to the improved sparing conditions worldwide, international touristry has been able to recover from the decline brought in the financial crisis. (United Nations, 2010). The travel and touristry industry is one of the largest and intimately dynamic industries in the world and this industry is expected to generate about 9% of global GDP and provide for more than 235 million jobs representing 8 % of global employment (Merco Press, 2010).The WTO h as set up the long-term forecast of the assessment of the maturement of touristry up to the first 20 years of the new millennium know as the Tourism 2020 vision.UNWTOs Tourism 2020 vision predicts that international arrivals be expected to reach over 1.56 billion by the year 2020. Of these worldwide arrivals in 2020, 1.2 bequeath be intr atomic number 18gional and 0.4 will be long-haul travelers. The top three receiving regions will be Europe with 717 million tourists, East Asia and the Pacific around 397 million and the Americas with 282 million, followed by the Africa, set East and South Asia (UNWTO, 2011). As much(prenominal), the tourist will continue to be a flourishing industry in the coming years. Tourism has been described as the smokeless industry that slew bring that throne bring maximum benefit to a community as compared to differentwise economical activities. Tourism has been viewed as a immorals of improving a community as a better place to live and generati ng economic benefits.2.1 Tourism impactsThere are numerous academic researchers that wipe out been done on the impacts of touristry. Many local anesthetic anaesthetic communities believe that touristry can stimulate transfer in social, pagan, environmental and economic dimensions where touristry activities fork over had a close connection with the local communities (Beeton, 2006Richards Hall, 2000).It is important to understand and assess tourism impacts so as to maintain sustainability and the long-term success of the tourism industry (Diedrich Garcia-Buades, 2008). Tourism is similarly regarded to as the worlds largest industry and regarded as a means of achieving community ontogenesis (Sharpley, 2002). As much(prenominal), it becomes imperative to understand tourism impacts towards the community. under is a diagram illustrating tourism impacts on the community.Perceived Negative Impacts of TourismPersonal Benefit from TourismResident CharacteristicsSupport for Add itional Tourism residential area Tourism DependencePerceived Positive Impacts of TourismSupport for Tourism PlanningSource Adapted from Perdue, Long and Allen 1990, p.589In the twenty-first century, researchers on tourism points out a range of both substantiative and negative impacts on the server community as a offspring of tourism development. (Fredline and Faulkner, 2000 Upchurch and Teivane, 2000). Several studies have been conducted that explain the impacts of tourism on the environment, economy, society and flori finishing. Researches done on the impacts of tourism on the society are wide and varied. For example, as Ryan (1991) states that the greatest impacts of tourism will occur when there is a greater gap between the culture and income level of both host and tourist.Locals perceptions towards the tourism impacts can vary significantly. According to Sharma (2004), if residents have more positive attititudes towards tourism impacts, tourism development will be more succe ssful in a community. If residents benefit from tourism development they take additional tourism planning and development in a community. By understanding the residents perceptions, can service of process to access abet for continued tourism development done community electrical capacity building. Gursoy Rutherford (2004) outlines that tourism developers need to consider the perceptions and attitudes of residents before investing in scarce resources. In addition, understanding of residents perceptions towards tourism impacts can as well as help in identifying the types of tourism which have the potential for building community capacity (Moscardo, 2008, p.86). On the other hand, various studies show that people who have an economic benefit from tourism perceive more positive impact from it (Chon, 2000).Economic impactsIn the beginning, tourism was encouraged because of its economic impacts. It is lastly accepted that tourism provides economic benefits to the community. The ec onomic impacts of tourism are the most widely researched impacts of tourism on community (Mason, 2003).Economic impacts are easier to research in a local community because it is small and generally it is more accessible. Moreover, tourism can have positive benefits on local economies and a visible impact on national GDP step-up which can be an essential component for community development and poverty reduction. (Ashe, 2005). For instance, tourism creates employment for locals, investment opportunities, business opportunities, tax revenues for organisation and it also help small and medium enterprises for countries, regions and communities to expand (Ryan ,1998 Choi Sirakaya, 2005 Dyer,2007) but on the other hand tourism can have negative economic impacts on the society much(prenominal) as too much dependency on foreign capital, inflation , leakages and a low education trap for locals (Giannoni Maupertus, 2007). Yet, more important is the benefits spread to the residents of loc al communities (Scheyvens, 2001).The economic impacts of tourism are therefore, generally perceived positively by the residents (Tatoglu et al 2000).For the development of tourism to occur, environment, societies and cultures at the goal has paid a dense price. The main concern is not whole the development but to tackle the challenges posed by the development (Chaudhary, 2007).Social and cultural impactsAccording to law (1993,pp.135-164), culture and society are in a state of constant change because of many featureors, notably the rapid progress in communications and social fundamental interactions that can extend rapidly over vast distances. Social impacts refer to changes in the lives of people who live in destination communities and these impacts are mostly associated with residents and tourists. On the hand, cultural impacts refer to changes in the arts, artifacts, customs, rituals and architecture of a people and are longer term changes resulting from tourism development th an other types of development. Social and cultural impacts refer to changes to residents chance(a) experiences as well as to their values, way of life and intellectual and artistic products. Social and cultural impacts are strongly interconnected and not limited only to the host area population (Glasson, 1995, p.34).In many destinations, the genius and traditional meanings of culture may be substantially changed when culture is redefined as market share (Earrington and Gewertz, 1996). Because of this, a host community may face cultural problems of the commercialization of culture, religion and the arts together with the misuse of indigeneous culture as attractions and be forced to get into cultural habits of the tourists, such as their language, dress and manner to satisfy visitors (Cohen, 1979).Another downside of tourism development is seen in many parts of the world where tourism developments threaten the fault of local people. On the other hand, Glasson (1995, p.35-36) argu es that along with the downside of development, there are cultural benefits and intercultural communication between hosts and visitors that increase good understanding between them. Without tourists, local culture and tradition may have been lost completely, as there is no market for traditional products.Environmental impactsEnvironmental impacts occur as a result of tourism development in many regions of the world as communities struggle to find an optimal balance between optimal and conservation. Recently,it has been found that tourism activities are upliftedly dependent on the environment. Research has shown the impacts that tourism has on immanent resources (Green, Hunter and Moore, 2000).Most of the researchers have been conducted on natural or semi-natural areas, with precise little research done on urban settings (Green, 1990).Specific sites have been examined such as Alpine areas (Goodman, 1987Rodriguez, 1987), islands (Wilkinson, 1989), coastal areas (Martinez-Taberner, Moya and Forteza, 1990). In addition, most research has been focused around the negative impacts that tourism has on natural resources after the damage has taken place.As such, tourism is always blamed to be responsible for resource degradation (Farell and McLellan, 1987).On the other hand, there are also positive impacts of tourism associated with the environment.2.2 The Environmental Impacts of TourismThe environment is probably one of the most important contributors to the desirability and attractiveness of a destination. Scenic sites, agreeable humors and unique landscape features have an important influence in tourism development and the spatial distribution of tourism movement. (Coccossis and Nijkamp, 1995, p.4)Tourism and the environment are interrelated as tourism is dependent on natural resources to survive. There are studies that have identified both the positive and negative environmental impacts of tourism (Burns Holden, 1995 Puckzo Ratz, 2000). disconcert 1 can bett er illustrate both the positive and negative impacts of tourism in a destination area.Table 1 Balance pall of environmental impacts of tourismArea of effectNegative impactsPositive impactsBiodiversityDisruption of breeding/feeding patternsKilling of animals for leisure (hunting) or to supply souvenir trade. passing of habitats and change in species composition Destruction of vegetationEncouragement to conserve animals as attractions.Establishment of defended or conserved areas to meet tourist demands eroding and physical damageSoil erosionDamage to sites through trampling Overloading of key infrastructure (e.g. body of water supply networks)Tourism revenue to finance shew repair and site restorationImprovement to infrastructure prompted by tourist demandPollutionWater pollution through sewage or fire spillage and rubbish from pleasure boats Air pollution (e.g. vehicle emissions) Noise pollution (e.g. from vehicles or tourist attractions bars, discos, etc.) LitteringCleaning prog rammes to protect the attractiveness of location to tourists pick baseDepletion of ground and surface waterDiversion of water supply to meet tourist needs (e.g. golf courses or pools) Depletion of local fuel sources Depletion of local building-material sourcesDevelopment of new/improved sources of supplyVisual/structural changeLand transfers to tourism (e.g. from farming)Detrimental visual impact on natural and non-natural landscapes through tourism developmentIntroduction of new architectural stylesChanges in (urban) functions Physical expansion of built-up areasRegeneration and/or modernisation of built environmentReuse of rare buildingsSource Adapted from Hunter and Green (1990)For the negative impacts of tourism, Puckzo and Ratz (2000) observed that tourism development that are not well-planned often manoeuvers to increased stress on destinations and in negative changes in the destinations physical and socio cultural attributes. According to Wood (1991), it is possible to iden tify broad categories of impacts that may affect all destinations. Water pollution is believed to be one of the environmental impacts caused by tourism. It can affect surfaces such as rivers, lakes and oceans. Chemical and oils spills from boats can cause devastating water pollution that kills water birds, mollusk and other wildlife. phaetons can also contribute to the degradation of the marine life also throughsnorkelling,scuba diving and sport fishing can threaten fisheries and other marine resources. For example, tourism is known to have contributed to inappropriate development around Lake Tahoe in the United States (Iverson, Sheppard Strain, 1993) and at Pattaya in Thailand (Mieczkowski, 1995) oil pollution in water at King George island (Harris, 1991) habitat loss, fragmentation and erosion in Nepal (Croall, 1995) destruction of wildlife at Zakynthos in Greece (Prunier, Sweeney Gree, 1993) tingeance of animals and loss of area for production in Kenya (Sindiga Kannunah, 1999 ). isolated from the consumption of large amounts of natural resources, the tourism industry also produces considerable waste and pollution. In fact, disposal of liquid and solid waste generated by the tourism industry has posed a problem for many developing countries and near countries are incapable of treating these waste materials. This has led to reducing the availability of natural resources such as fresh water. For example, in Kerala state the tourist industry collapses after two decades of fast growth because there was inadequate disposal of solid waste.Tourists also contribute to land pollution from solid waste and the contamination of marine waters and coastal areas from pollution generated by marinas, hotels and cruise ships. Moreover, the tourist industry uses high level of energy consumption in hotels including air-conditioning, heating and cooking as well as transportation which can cause air pollution in many host countries. Air and noise pollution as well congestions are seeming to result from tourist development.Tourism activities which are not mighty controlled can also cause severe disruption of wildlife habitats and increased pressure on endangered species. For example, in Africas national parks tourists vehicles approach wild animals and very often distract them from hunting and breeding, in the carribean sea there are even boat crews that pursue whales and dolphins and as such discourage petting which tends to disturb the animals feeding and behaviour (Masny,2001).In addition, tourism also leads to the clearance of congenital vegetation for the development of new facilities, new infrastructure and tourist development. There is an increase in demand for fuelwood and even forest fires. This results not only in the destruction of local habitats and ecosystems but also in the processes of erosion and landslide. Fragile areas such as forests, wet lands and mangroves are also threatened by tourism activities.On the other side, tourism contri butes to the positive benefits of the environment. Doswell (1997) argues that tourism lays emphasis to conserve and protect the environment. Tourism also draws direction to subjects regarding biodiversity, endangered species and human impacts on the environment. Tourism is also used as a means to preserve natural areas quite a than to develop them for alternative uses such as agriculture, forestry and mining (Master, 1998). Tourism can contribute to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitat. For example, in Ghana tourism has helped in maintaining the natural reserves. Tourists can help towards environmental protection, conservation and biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. In this way, natural areas become valuable and this can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife parks.Revenue received from park-entrance fees can be allocated to pay for the protection and management of sensitive areas. On the hand, in some places government pull money fr om tourists in in taper ways. For example user tax, sales or recreation of rental equipment and license fees for hunting and fishing can provide government with the proper fund needed to manage natural resources and to finance infrastructure. Tourism encourages cleaning programmes , and this reduces the damagingAnother change that can affect tourism is climate change. Climate impact is considered as the consequences of climate change on natural and human systems (IPCC, 2001). Climate impacts can be for example the primary productivity of an ecosystem, play false cover depth. For example, a Bigano (2006) stimulates the effects of development and climate change on tourism. Climate change could negatively affect countries and regions that depend heavily on tourism.2.3 Residents perceptions towards tourismFor the long-term success of the tourism industry, it is imperative to understand and assess residents attitudes towards the impact of tourism development (Ap,1992 Ritchie and Inkari, 2006). Sustainable tourism development can be achieved ordinarily when all stakeholders are involved in the process (Bryd, 2007). Sustainable tourism believes that the community is the focal point of tourism and planning process (Choi and Sirakaya, 2005).In addition, investigating the residents perceptions towards tourism is important because it influence their behaviour towards tourism (Andriotis and Vaughan, 2003). Studies show that the perceptions of residents towards tourism differ toward tourism development. Sustainable tourism development largely depends on the hosts acceptability of tourists and tourism-related programs, offerings and activities by locals (Musa, Hall, and Higham 2004). The active support of the local population is required for tourism development to occur in a community. One indicator that affects tourism development in a destination is the host attitude (Lepp, 2007). In a destination area, the attitudes of the tourists and residents are taken into account. Another factor that is probably to influence the negative and positive impacts of tourists destination is residents attachment to community. Some researchers, Canan and Hennessy (1989) states that the longer the residents live in a community, the more negative they are towards tourism development. The lengths of residency of locals have a direct impact on tourism development.There are several studies that have been conducted to explain the residents perceptions towards tourism impacts and how far residents support tourism development in a community. Theories such as the attribution theory (Pearce, 1989) dependency theory (Preister, 2008), the social representation theory (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003), pantrymans (1980) tourist area life cycle, Doxeys Irridex model, the intrinsic and extrinsic modeling (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997) and the social exchange theory (SET) (Ap, 1982) have been developed in an attempt to better understand the host perceptions towards tourism.However, it is the SET that have received the greatest attention by scholars attempting to study residents attitudes towards tourism and their support towards tourism development. (Gursoy Rutherford, 2004 Sirakaya, Teye , Sonmez, 2002). However there are also other popular theories such asButlers Area career Cycle (1980, Doxeys Irritation Index, the extrinsic/intrinsic model (Faulkner and Tideswell 1997) which describe the host-tourist relation.2.3.1Social Exchange TheoryIn a tourism context, social exchange theory would mean an exchange of resources between the tourists and the host population where each of the supply each other with valued resources (Ap, 1992, p.668). SET implies that residents who gain benefits from the tourism industry are deally to perceive the industry as positive and thus support tourist industry, while those who perceive themselves incurring costs because of tourism would display negative attitudes towards tourism thereby opposing such development. The SET theory is th e most common type of theory used to assess tourism impacts in a contingent destination. Social exchange theory firmly believes that a need exists to measure the level of active participation of residents in the planning and development process associated with tourism development (Wang Pister, 2008). In the tourism literature, several studies have been conducted and which explained the theory of residents perceptions and assessments of the costs and benefits of tourism and their support for tourism development. In simpler words, social exchange theory supports that residents count the costs and benefits of tourism development, and their effort for tourism development (Ap, 1992 Yoon 2001). As such residents become aware of the positive and negative impacts of tourism and can reconcile whether to support or not to support tourism development.Figure1 Factors affecting residents attitudes towards touristsEXTRINSIC DIMENSIONINTRINSIC DIMENSIONPeriod of ResidenceMature State of Develo pment early Stage ofDevelopmentLongTermRecentArrivalHigh TouristRatioAdaptedNon-adaptedddEmployment lifetimestyle Choice let out TouristRatioPerception ofTourism+InternationalTourismOrientationDomesticTourismOrientationNoYesNon-TourismZoneTourismZoneHighSeasonalityLowSeasonalityResidentialProximityInvolvementSource Faulkner and Tideswell (1997)2.3.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic ModelNumerous studies have identified the factors that affect residents perceptions .Such factors have been used in the tourism literature to describe tourism impacts (Jurowski Gursoy, 2004). These are intrinsic and extrinsic variables (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, Fredline Faulkner, 2000, p.765). The intrinsic variables refer to the characteristics of the host community that affect the impacts of tourism with the host community (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, p.6) and includes factors such asemployment, length of residence, proximity to tourist zones and involvement within the tourism industry. Length of residency af fect tourism development in a community, native born of the community have been found to have more negative perception of tourism development because they are attached to that place (Madrigal, 1995). On the other hand, Bisle and Hoy (1980) found a positive relationship between distance of residence from the tourist zone and perceptions. As regards to community attachment, studies showed that the longer a host has been a resident in the area as such they become less attached to tourism (Weaver, 2001). Residents who are dependent and involved in the tourism sector are more likely to have positive attitudes towards tourism (Linderb, 1997). The intrinsic variable shows that the host community is not homogeneous but quite heterogeneous meaning that the perceptions of tourism differ among the residents (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003 Faulkner Tideswell, 1997 Fredline Faulkner, 2000).The extrinsic factors are the characteristics of a location with respect to its role as a tourist destination including the nature and stage of tourist activity and the types of tourists involved (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, p.6).The extrinsic factors that are likely to influence host attitudes towards tourism is the stage of tourism development occurring in a destination (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003) as argued by Butler (1980) and Doxey (1975). The extrinsic factors areseasonality, type of tourists, particular stage of development, the tourist guest-ratio (Doxey, 1973 butler, 1980 Ap, 1983).Seasonality affect a destination, during peak seasons there is high flow of tourists resulting in economic inflation, traffic congestion and this affect the residents way of lives on the other hand, residents who are dependent on tourism are likely to tolerate these disruptive conditions. (Rothman, 1978 Beliste, 1980 Sheldon, 1984).The type of tourists is another factor that affects residents perceptions of tourism. Some tourists are independent travellers while others depend on locals, they try adjust with locals they accept the hosts local conditions (Amir, 1985 Page 2003). In understanding residents perceptions towards tourism, the stage of development is considered among the most important factors. To better illustrate this issue, it was important to investigate Butlers Tourism Destination Lifecycle Model.2.3.3 Butlers Area Life CycleAnother model in regard to the host-tourist destination is Butlers Area Lifecycle Model. Although that this model dates three decades, it is still academically recognized. Butler (1980) believes that tourist areas evolve and change over time. According to this evolution, the stages that tourist areas experience are exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation, decline or rejuvenation. apply a life-cycle model, Butler describes the resident and tourist involvement in destination area. Unlike products, destinations have a lifecycle too. Figure 2 illustrates the lifecycle of a destination.Figure 2 Hypothetical Evolution of a Tourist Area (Adapted from Miller and Gallucci, 2004)Using a life-cycle model, Butler describes the resident and tourist involvement in destination area. Unlike products, destinations have a lifecycle too. Moreover, Butler has also explained why tourism leads to unsustainability. By using the example of the life-cycle model, he describes how a small group of tourists explore a natural attraction by involving local residents and making subsequent development of the area. With time, the number of tourists grows, eventually leading to mass tourism. And if the tourism products are not rejuvenated, stagnation occurs at the destination and there is a fall through over-consumption of tourism products which is beyond the carrying capacity of the destination. (including adverse effects on the environment)Butler also focuses that if there is no proper management and control, environment degradation is inevitable once carrying capacity has been reached and then exceeded making mass tourism unsustainab le. As noted by Jamison (1999), at the stagnation stage, locals have begun to express some discontent with tourism and its effects. When a destination develops, unmet residents expectations and other negative impacts of development are also likely to result in changes and attitudes towards the industry. (Teye, Sonmez and Sirakaya , 2002). The TALC S-shaped curve has also been used to describe the host-guest dichotomy- from the eagerness of the potential of tourism through to resentment of tourists, resulting from exceeding local social carrying capacity. However, certain limitations have been found in Butlers model. It has been pointed out that the model assumes a score of homogeneity of community reactions (Mason and Cheyne, 2000), but Butler denies by saying a consistent evolution of tourist area can be conceptualized.Tosun (2002) suggests that this model applies to special(prenominal) areas and not all areasbecause the cycle varies from one tourist area to another.2.3.4 Doxeys Irritation IndexAssociated with Butlers life cycle theory is Doxeys Irritation Index or Irridex which describes the resident-tourist interaction and attitude. This model explains host community reaction to tourism development in a specific area. The model outlines that negative impacts of tourism development might nominate residents feel irritated as with time host and tourists become incompatible with each other. The model has four stages which vary from euphoria, apathy, annoyance and to antagonism. Although Doxeys (1975) irridex is regarded as one of the most influential theory has been starting from Euphoria to Antagonism, where the resident irritation increases through the stages 1 to 4. (1=low irritation,4=high level of irritation). One limitation of this theory and that of Butler also, is the assumption a community is heterogeneous. The study implies that is the whole community that becomes hostile to tourism, but very often different sections of the community have differen t reactions. It can be concluded that the Doxey Irritation Index is simple but it does indicate a factor in tourism development and by these social changes some residents will develop antagonistic attitudes towards tourism.2.4 Residents perceptions towards tourism environmental impactsThe environment is one of the main area in which residents assess the potential impacts of tourism before they decide to embrace or reject it. According to Kuvan and Akan (2005, p.703) residents are more sensitive and concerned for problems related to the environment than the other negative impacts of tourism. Following this, Liu, Sheldon, and Var (1987) report that residents have high ratings for environmental impacts. According to Mieczkowski (1995, p.8) defines the natural environment as a combination of non-living things, that is, abiotic, physical components together with biological resources or the biosphere including flora and fauna. Kuvan and Akan (2005) describes scholars interests in investi gating into community attitudes towards tourism impact on the natural environment at a time when ecological problems such as pollution, depletion of natural resources and disforestation are increasing. This means that mountaineous areas, savannahs, wetlands, deserts, islands and the artic have biophysical characteristics that cause damage to the natural environment. These fragile areas when disturbed, normally have relatively slow rates of recovery (Harrison Price, 1996).The focus on environmental impacts emerged from residents perceived impacts of the environmental impacts and other tourism impacts such as economic and social impacts of tourism has lagged behind. (Kuvan Akan, 2005).Moreover, there is a lack of information on residents perceived environmental impacts of tourism in developing countries (Kuvan Akan , 2005 Madrgal, 1993). It is an agreed fact that tourism is believed to have a far more visible effect in rural areas and developing contries than urban areas and perhap s tourism has a greater effect on rural residents (Madrigal, 1993, p.337), studies related to residents perceptions of the environment has focused more on destinations, communities and regions in developed countries rather than on developing countries. Apart from this, Schluter and Var (1988) observed that there are some issues that are special to developing countries. Furthermore, a proper analysis of the residents perceived environmental impacts of tourism could help planners and tourism practitioners to identify real concerns and also to develop appropriate policies and actions.2.5 Tourism development in MauritiusMauritius was made first, and then heaven was copied from it (Mark Twain). Mauritius is among the top 20 beautiful islands of the world .Tourism is an important contributor to economic growth in Small Island developing States like Mauritius. The World Bank has mentioned Mauritius as an example for southern Africa of an economy that has attained remarkable success in its economic development (World Bank, 1992 Hwedi, 2001). This success as mentioned cannot be escaped from tourism development, given Mauritius as the choice of destination for European visitors (Prayag, 2009 Prayag Ryan, 2010).Mauritiuss tourism industry success can be measured by the fact that it makes the highest gross domestic product contribution (30 per cent) and receives the second highest yearly total budget allocation(16.1 per cent) of countries in